Light-emitting device including quantum dots

ABSTRACT

A light emitting device including an emissive material comprising quantum dots is disclosed. In one embodiment, the device includes a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injection electrons comprising an inorganic material, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, a layer comprising a hole injection material, and an anode. In certain embodiments, the hole injection material can be a p-type doped hole transport material. In certain preferred embodiments, quantum dots comprise semiconductor nanocrystals. In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer. Other light emitting devices and a method are disclosed.

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/896,856, filed 2 Oct. 2010, which is a continuation of commonly owned International Application No. PCT/US2009/002123 filed 3 Apr. 2009, which was published in the English language as PCT Publication No. WO2009/123763 on 8 Oct. 2009, which International Application claims priority to U.S. Application No. 61/042,154 filed 3 Apr. 2008, each of the foregoing hereby being incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with Government support under Advanced Technology Program Award No. 70NANB7H7056 awarded by NIST. The United States has certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the technical field of devices including quantum dots.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with one aspect of the present invention there is provided a light emitting device including a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganic material, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, a hole injection material, and an anode.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device includes a cathode and an anode, and an emissive layer comprising quantum dots provided between the cathode and the anode, and wherein the device further includes: a layer comprising material capable of transporting and injecting electrons provided between the cathode and the emissive layer, a layer comprising material capable of transporting holes provided between the emissive layer and the anode, and a layer comprising a hole-injection material provided between the anode and the layer comprising material capable of transporting holes, wherein the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material and the material capable of transporting holes comprises an organic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic that is doped with a species to enhance electron transport characteristics of the inorganic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a metal oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titanium dioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises zinc oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture of two or more inorganic materials.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture of zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

In certain embodiments, the layers are formed in the following sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganic material, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising an organic material, the layer comprising a hole injection material, and the anode.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a stratified structure including two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities. In certain embodiments, the stratified structure includes a first zone, on a side of the structure closer to the cathode, comprising an n-type doped material with electron injecting characteristics, and a second zone, on the side of the structure closer to the emissive layer, comprising an intrinsic or lightly doped material with electron transport characteristics. In certain embodiments, for example, the first zone can comprise n-type doped zinc oxide and the second zone can comprise intrinsic zinc oxide or n-type doped zinc oxide with a lower n-type dopant concentration that that of the zinc oxide in the first zone. In certain embodiments, for example, the stratified structure can include a first zone, on a side of the structure closer to the cathode, comprising an n-type doped material with electron injecting characteristics, a third zone, on a side of the structure closer to the emissive layer, comprising an intrinsic material with hole blocking characteristics, and a second zone, between the first and third zones, comprising an intrinsic or lightly doped material with electron transport characteristics. In certain embodiments, for example, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise a first layer, closer to the cathode, comprising a material capable of injecting electrons and a second layer, closer to the emissive layer, comprising a material capable of transporting electrons. In certain embodiments, for example, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise a first layer, closer to the cathode, comprising a material capable of injecting electrons, a second layer, closer to the emissive layer, comprising a material capable of blocking holes, and a third layer between the first and second layers, comprising a material capable of transporting electrons.

In certain embodiments, the device can further include a spacer layer between the emissive layer and an adjacent layer included in the device (e.g., a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes and/or a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons).

A spacer layer can comprise an inorganic material. A spacer layer can comprise an organic material. Additional information concerning a spacer layer is provided below.

In certain preferred embodiments, a spacer layer comprises a material non-quenching to quantum dot emission.

In certain embodiments, the hole injection material can comprise a material capable of transporting holes that is p-type doped.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the Work function of the Cathode is less than 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the Work function of the Cathode is less than 0.3 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the Work function of the Cathode is less than 0.2 eV.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of the material capable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of material capable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.3 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of material capable of transporting & injecting electrons is less than 0.2 eV.

In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and the E_(VALENCE band edge) of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons is greater than about 1 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and the E_(VALENCE band edge) of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons is greater than about 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(HOMO) of the quantum dots and the E_(VALENCE band edge) of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons is greater than about 0.3 eV.

In certain embodiments, the device can have an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, light emission from the light emissive material occurs at a bias across the device that is less than the electron-Volt of the bandgap of the quantum dots in the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, quantum dots can include a core comprising a first material and a shell disposed over at least a portion of, and preferably substantially all, of the outer surface of the core, the shell comprising a second material. (A quantum dot including a core and shell is also described herein as having a core/shell structure.) In certain embodiments, more than one shell can be included in the core. In certain embodiments, the first material comprises an inorganic semiconductor material. In certain embodiments, the second material comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, quantum dots comprise inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals. In certain embodiments, inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals can comprise a core/shell structure. In certain preferred embodiments, quantum dots comprise colloidally grown inorganic semiconductor nanocrystals.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the quantum dots include a ligand attached to an outer surface thereof. In certain embodiments, two or more chemically distinct ligands can be attached to an outer surface of at least a portion of the quantum dots. In certain embodiments, an anode comprising a material with <5 eV work function can be used, thereby avoiding the need to utilize precious metals such as gold, etc.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for preparing a light emitting device, the method comprising:

forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons on a cathode, wherein the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material;

applying an emissive layer comprising quantum dots thereover;

forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising an organic material over the emissive layer;

forming a layer comprising a hole injection material over the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes; and

forming an anode over the layer comprising a hole injection material.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises encapsulating the light emitting device.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a light emitting device including a pair of electrodes, a layer comprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots provided between the electrodes, and a layer comprising a material capable of transporting electrons comprising an inorganic material provided between the emissive layer and one of the electrodes, wherein the layer comprising the material capable of transporting electrons comprising an inorganic material comprises a stratified structure including two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities. The inorganic material included in different zones of the stratified structure can be doped or undoped forms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the electron and hole populations are balanced at the emissive layer of the device.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titanium dioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, the zinc oxide is surface treated with an oxidizing agent to render the surface proximate to the emissive layer intrinsic.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material can comprise a mixture of two or more inorganic materials.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a stratified structure as taught herein can serve as a layer capable of transporting and injecting electrons. In certain embodiments, a zone in a layer comprising a stratified structure as taught herein can have a predetermined conductivity so as to serve as a layer capable of transporting electrons, a layer capable of injecting electrons, and/or a layer capable of blocking holes. In certain embodiments, a zone can comprise a distinct layer.

In accordance with another aspect of there present invention, there is provided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device comprising a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, a hole injection material, and an anode, the device having an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holes comprises an organic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic semiconductor material.

In certain embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titanium dioxide.

In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises zinc oxide.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture of two or more inorganic materials.

In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture of zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holes comprises an inorganic material.

In certain embodiments the material capable of transporting holes comprises an organic material.

Preferably in certain embodiments, the layers are formed in the following sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganic material, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, the layer comprising a hole injection material, and the anode.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a light emitting device comprising a pair of electrodes and a layer of a light emissive material provided between the electrodes, wherein light emission from the light emissive material occurs at a bias voltage across the device that is less than the energy in electron-Volts of the bandgap of the emissive material.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes an emissive material comprising quantum dots. In certain embodiments, other well known light emissive materials can be used or included in the device. In certain embodiments, additional layers can also be included. In certain embodiments, the device comprises a light emitting device in accordance with embodiments of the invention taught herein.

In accordance with another aspect of the invention, there are provided displays and other products including the above-described light-emitting device.

In certain embodiments of the present invention taught are taught herein, an emissive layer can include two or more different types of quantum dots, wherein each type is selected to emit light having a predetermined wavelength. In certain embodiments, quantum dot types can be different based on, for example, factors such composition, structure and/or size of the quantum dot. In certain embodiments, quantum dots can be selected to emit at any predetermined wavelength across the electromagnetic spectrum. An emissive layer can include different types of quantum dots that have emissions at different wavelengths.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes quantum dots capable of emitting visible light.

In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes quantum dots capable of emitting infrared light.

As used herein, the terms “inorganic material” and “organic material” may be further defined by a functional descriptor, depending on the desired function being addressed. In certain embodiments, the same material can address more than one function.

In some embodiments, it may be desirable to have different conductivities which can be accomplished, for example, by changing the carrier mobility and/or charge density of a material in a zone and/or layer.

In certain embodiments including a stratified structure, horizontal zones are preferably parallel to the cathode.

Other aspects and embodiments of the invention relate to materials and methods that are useful in making the above described light-emitting devices, displays, and other products including the above-described light-emitting device.

The foregoing, and other aspects described herein, all constitute embodiments of the present invention.

It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed.

Other embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the description and drawings, from the claims, and from practice of the invention disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is schematic drawing depicting an example of an embodiment of a light-emitting device structure in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 2 provides a schematic band structure of an example of an embodiment of a light-emitting device in accordance with the invention.

FIGS. 3 & 4 graphically present performance data for the Red Light Emitting Device of the Examples.

FIG. 5 graphically presents performance data for the Green Light Emitting Device (A) and the Blue Light emitting Device (B) of the Examples.

FIG. 6 graphically compares lifetime data for the Red Light Emitting Device of the Examples (indicated as “inverted structure” in the figure) and the Standard Light Emitting Device (a comparative device) described in the Examples (indicated as “standard structure” in the figure).

FIG. 7 depicts an I (current)-V (voltage) curves for devices that include hole injection layers and a device without a hole injection layer.

FIG. 8 shows device luminance efficiency for different device structures.

FIG. 9 shows luminance efficiency of a device without an electron transport and hole blocking layer.

FIG. 10 shows luminance of inverted device without either a hole blocking or electron transport and injection layer.

FIG. 11 shows performance data for an example of device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 12 shows operating voltage for an example of a red light emitting device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 13 shows operating voltage for an example of an orange light emitting device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 14 shows efficiency at certain luminance for an example of an orange light emitting device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 15 shows performance for an example of a device in accordance with any embodiment of the invention.

The attached figures are simplified representations presented for purposes of illustration only; the actual structures may differ in numerous respects, including, e.g., relative scale, etc.

For a better understanding to the present invention, together with other advantages and capabilities thereof, reference is made to the following disclosure and appended claims in connection with the above-described drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

FIG. 1 provides a schematic representation of an example of the architecture of a light-emitting device according to one embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, the light-emitting device 10 includes (from top to bottom) an anode 1, a layer comprising a hole injection material 2, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes (also referred to herein as a “hole transport material”) 3, a layer including quantum dots 4, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons (also referred to herein as an “electron transport material”) comprising an inorganic material 5, a cathode 6, and a substrate (not shown). When voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, the anode injects holes into the hole injection material while the cathode injects electrons into the electron transport material. The injected holes and injected electrons combine to form an exciton on the quantum dot and emit light.

The substrate (not shown) can be opaque or transparent. A transparent substrate can be used, for example, in the manufacture of a transparent light emitting device. See, for example, Bulovic, V. et al., Nature 1996, 380, 29; and Gu, G. et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 1996, 68, 2606-2608, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. The substrate can be rigid or flexible. The substrate can be plastic, metal, semiconductor wafer, or glass. The substrate can be a substrate commonly used in the art. Preferably the substrate has a smooth surface. A substrate surface free of defects is particularly desirable.

The cathode 6 can be formed on the substrate (not shown). In certain embodiments, a cathode can comprise, ITO, aluminum, silver, gold, etc. The cathode preferably comprises a material with a work function chosen with regard to the quantum dots included in the device. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the work function of the cathode is less than about 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and the work function of the cathode is less than about 0.3 eV, and preferably less than about 0.2 eV. E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots represents the energy level of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the quantum dot. For example, a cathode comprising indium tin oxide (ITO) can be preferred for use with an emissive material including quantum dots comprising a CdSe core/CdZnSe shell.

Substrates including patterned ITO are commercially available and can be used in making a device according to the present invention.

The layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injection electrons 5 preferably comprises an inorganic material. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material included in the layer capable or transporting and injection electrons comprises an inorganic semiconductor material. Preferred inorganic semiconductor materials include those having a band gap that is greater than the emission energy of the emissive material. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of material capable of transporting and injecting electrons, is less than about 0.5 eV. In certain embodiments, the absolute value of the difference between E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots and E_(conduction band edge) of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons, is less than about 0.3 eV, and preferably less than about 0.2 eV E_(LUMO) of the quantum dots represents the energy level of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the quantum dots; E_(of the conduction band edge) of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons represents the energy level of the conduction band edge of the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons.

Examples of inorganic semiconductor materials include a metal chalcogenide, a metal pnictide, or elemental semiconductor, such as a metal oxide, a metal sulfide, a metal selenide, a metal telluride, a metal nitride, a metal phosphide, a metal arsenide, or metal arsenide. For example, an inorganic semiconductor material can include, without limitation, zinc oxide, a titanium oxide, a niobium oxide, an indium tin oxide, copper oxide, nickel oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide, indium oxide, tin oxide, gallium oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, cobalt oxide, aluminum oxide, thallium oxide, silicon oxide, germanium oxide, lead oxide, zirconium oxide, molybdenum oxide, hafnium oxide, tantalum oxide, tungsten oxide, cadmium oxide, iridium oxide, rhodium oxide, ruthenium oxide, osmium oxide, zinc sulfide, zinc selenide, zinc telluride, cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, cadmium telluride, mercury sulfide, mercury selenide, mercury telluride, silicon carbide, diamond (carbon), silicon, germanium, aluminum nitride, aluminum phosphide, aluminum arsenide, aluminum antimonide, gallium nitride, gallium phosphide, gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide, indium nitride, indium phosphide, indium arsenide, indium antimonide, thallium nitride, thallium phosphide, thallium arsenide, thallium antimonide, lead sulfide, lead selenide, lead telluride, iron sulfide, indium selenide, indium sulfide, indium telluride, gallium sulfide, gallium selenide, gallium telluride, tin selenide, tin telluride, tin sulfide, magnesium sulfide, magnesium selenide, magnesium telluride, barium titanate, barium zirconate, zirconium silicate, yttria, silicon nitride, and a mixture of two or more thereof. In certain embodiments, the inorganic semiconductor material can include a dopant.

In certain preferred embodiments, an electron transport material can include an n-type dopant.

An example of a preferred inorganic semiconductor material for inclusion in an electron transport material of a device in accordance with the invention is zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, zinc oxide can be mixed or blended with one or more other inorganic materials, e.g., inorganic semiconductor materials, such as titanium oxide.

As mentioned above, in certain preferred embodiments, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise zinc oxide. Such zinc oxide can be prepared, for example, by a sol-gel process. In certain embodiments, the zinc oxide can be chemically modified. Examples of chemical modification include treatment with hydrogen peroxide.

In other preferred embodiments, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise a mixture including zinc oxide and titanium oxide.

The electron transport material is preferably included in the device as a layer. In certain embodiments, the layer has a thickness in a range from about 10 nm to 500 nm.

Electron transport materials comprising an inorganic semiconductor material can be deposited at a low temperature, for example, by a known method, such as a vacuum vapor deposition method, an ion-plating method, sputtering, inkjet printing, sol-gel, etc. For example, sputtering is typically performed by applying a high voltage across a low-pressure gas (for example, argon) to create a plasma of electrons and gas ions in a high-energy state. Energized plasma ions strike a target of the desired coating material, causing atoms from that target to be ejected with enough energy to travel to, and bond with, the substrate.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons can comprise a stratified structure comprising an inorganic material, wherein the stratified structure includes two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities. For example, in certain embodiments, the layer can include a first zone at the upper portion of the layer (nearer the emissive layer) comprising an intrinsic or slightly n-type doped inorganic material (e.g., sputtered intrinsic or slightly n-type doped zinc oxide) with electron transporting characteristics, and a second zone at the lower portion of the layer (more remote from the emissive layer) comprising inorganic material that has a higher concentration of n-type doping than the material in the first zone (e.g., sputtered n-type doped ZnO) with electron injection characteristics.

In another example, in certain embodiments, the layer can include three horizontal zones. e.g., a first zone at the upper portion of the layer (nearest the emissive layer) comprising an intrinsic inorganic material (e.g., sputtered intrinsic zinc oxide) which can be hole blocking; a second zone (between the first zone and the third zone) comprising an intrinsic or slightly n-type doped inorganic material (e.g., sputtered intrinsic or slightly n-type doped zinc oxide or another metal oxide) which can be electron transporting; and a third zone at the lowest portion of the layer (most remote from the emissive layer) comprising inorganic material that has a higher concentration of n-type doping than the material in the second zone (e.g., sputtered n-type doped ZnO or another metal oxide) which can be hole injecting.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material included in the stratified structure comprises an inorganic semiconductor material. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titanium dioxide. In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material can comprise a mixture of two or more inorganic materials. Other inorganic materials taught herein for inclusion in a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injection electrons can also be included in a stratified structure.

Additional information concerning inorganic materials that may be useful for inclusion in an electron transport layer is disclosed in International Application No. PCT/US2006/005184, filed 15 Feb. 2006, for “Light Emitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals, which published as WO 2006/088877 on 26 Aug. 2006, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The surface of the device on which an inorganic semiconductor material is to be formed can be cooled or heated for temperature control during the growth process. The temperature can affect the crystallinity of the deposited material as well as how it interacts with the surface it is being deposited upon. The deposited material can be polycrystalline or amorphous. The deposited material can have crystalline domains with a size in the range of 10 Angstroms to 1 micrometer. If doped, the doping concentration can be controlled by, for example, varying the gas, or mixture of gases, with a sputtering plasma technique. The nature and extent of doping can influence the conductivity of the deposited film, as well as its ability to optically quench neighboring excitons.

The emissive material 4 includes quantum dots. In certain embodiments, the quantum dots comprise an inorganic semiconductor material. In certain preferred embodiments, the quantum dots comprise crystalline inorganic semiconductor material (also referred to as semiconductor nanocrystals). Examples of preferred inorganic semiconductor materials include, but are not limited to, Group II-VI compound semiconductor nanocrystals, such as CdS, CdSe, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, and other binary, ternary, and quaternary II-VI compositions; Group III-V compound semiconductor nanocrystals, such as GaP, GaAs, InP and InAs; PbS; PbSe; PbTe, and other binary, ternary, and quaternary Ill-V compositions. Other non-limiting examples of inorganic semiconductor materials include Group II-V compounds, Group III-VI compounds, Group IV-VI compounds, Group I-III-VI compounds, Group II-IV-VI compounds, Group II-IV-V compounds, Group IV elements, an alloy including any of the foregoing, and/or a mixture including any of the foregoing. Further, materials for the quantum dot light-emitting layer may be core-shell structured nanocrystals (for example, CdSe/ZnS, CdS/ZnSe, InP/ZnS, etc.) wherein the core is composed of a semiconductor nanocrystal (e.g. CdSe, CdS, etc.) and the shell is composed of a crystalline inorganic semiconductor material (e.g., ZnS, ZnSe, etc.).

Quantum dots can also have various shapes, including, but not limited to, sphere, rod, disk, other shapes, and mixtures of various shaped particles.

An emissive material can comprise one or more different quantum dots. The differences can be based, for example, on different composition, different size, different structure, or other distinguishing characteristic or property.

The color of the light output of a light-emitting device can be controlled by the selection of the composition, structure, and size of the quantum dots included in a light-emitting device as the emissive material.

The emissive material is preferably included in the device as a layer. In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can comprise one or more layers of the same or different emissive material(s). In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness in a range from about 1 nm to about 20 nm. In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness in a range from about 1 nm to about 10 nm. In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness in a range from about 3 nm to about 6 about nm. In certain embodiments, the emissive layer can have a thickness of about 4 nm. A thickness of 4 nm can be preferred in a device including an electron transport material including a metal oxide.

Preferably, the quantum dots include one or more ligands attached to the surface thereof. In certain embodiments, a ligand can include an alkyl (e.g., C₁-C₂₀) species. In certain embodiments, an alkyl species can be straight-chain, branched, or cyclic. In certain embodiments, an alkyl species can be substituted or unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, an alkyl species can include a hetero-atom in the chain or cyclic species. In certain embodiments, a ligand can include an aromatic species. In certain embodiments, an aromatic species can be substituted or unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, an aromatic species can include a hetero-atom. Additional information concerning ligands is provided herein and in various of the below-listed documents which are incorporated herein by reference.

By controlling the structure, shape and size of quantum dots during preparation, energy levels over a very broad range of wavelengths can be obtained while the properties of the bulky materials are varied. Quantum dots (including but not limited to semiconductor nanocrystals) can be prepared by known techniques. Preferably they are prepared by a wet chemistry technique wherein a precursor material is added to a coordinating or non-coordinating solvent (typically organic) and nanocrystals are grown so as to have an intended size. According to the wet chemistry technique, when a coordinating solvent is used, as the quantum dots are grown, the organic solvent is naturally coordinated to the surface of the quantum dots, acting as a dispersant. Accordingly, the organic solvent allows the quantum dots to grow to the nanometer-scale level. The wet chemistry technique has an advantage in that quantum dots of a variety of sizes can be uniformly prepared by appropriately controlling the concentration of precursors used, the kind of organic solvents, and preparation temperature and time, etc.

The emission from a quantum dot capable of emitting light (e.g., a semiconductor nanocrystal) can be a narrow Gaussian emission band that can be tuned through the complete wavelength range of the ultraviolet, visible, or infra-red regions of the spectrum by varying the size of the quantum dot, the composition of the quantum dot, or both. For example, a semiconductor nanocrystal comprising CdSe can be tuned in the visible region; a semiconductor nanocrystal comprising InAs can be tuned in the infra-red region. The narrow size distribution of a population of quantum dots capable of emitting light (e.g., semiconductor nanocrystals) can result in emission of light in a narrow spectral range. The population can be monodisperse preferably exhibits less than a 15% rms (root-mean-square) deviation in diameter of such quantum dots, more preferably less than 10%, most preferably less than 5%. Spectral emissions in a narrow range of no greater than about 75 nm, no greater than about 60 nm, no greater than about 40 nm, and no greater than about 30 nm full width at half max (FWHM) for such quantum dots that emit in the visible can be observed. IR-emitting quantum dots can have a FWHM of no greater than 150 nm, or no greater than 100 nm. Expressed in terms of the energy of the emission, the emission can have a FWHM of no greater than 0.05 eV, or no greater than 0.03 eV. The breadth of the emission decreases as the dispersity of the light-emitting quantum dot diameters decreases.

For example, semiconductor nanocrystals can have high emission quantum efficiencies such as greater than 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90%.

The narrow FWHM of semiconductor nanocrystals can result in saturated color emission. The broadly tunable, saturated color emission over the entire visible spectrum of a single material system is unmatched by any class of organic chromophores (see, for example, Dabbousi et al., J. Phys. Chem. 101, 9463 (1997), which is incorporated by reference in its entirety). A monodisperse population of semiconductor nanocrystals will emit light spanning a narrow range of wavelengths. A pattern including more than one size of semiconductor nanocrystal can emit light in more than one narrow range of wavelengths. The color of emitted light perceived by a viewer can be controlled by selecting appropriate combinations of semiconductor nanocrystal sizes and materials. The degeneracy of the band edge energy levels of semiconductor nanocrystals facilitates capture and radiative recombination of all possible excitons.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can provide information about the size, shape, and distribution of the semiconductor nanocrystal population. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns can provide the most complete information regarding the type and quality of the crystal structure of the semiconductor nanocrystals. Estimates of size are also possible since particle diameter is inversely related, via the X-ray coherence length, to the peak width. For example, the diameter of the semiconductor nanocrystal can be measured directly by transmission electron microscopy or estimated from X-ray diffraction data using, for example, the Scherrer equation. It also can be estimated from the UV/Vis absorption spectrum.

An emissive material can be deposited by spin-casting, screen-printing, inkjet printing, gravure printing, roll coating, drop-casting, Langmuir-Blodgett techniques, contact printing or other techniques known or readily identified by one skilled in the relevant art.

In certain embodiments, a layer comprising a spacer material (not shown) can be included between the emissive material and a layer of the device adjacent thereto, for example, an electron transport layer and/or a hole transport layer. A layer comprising a spacer material can promote better electrical interface between the emissive layer and the adjacent charge transport layer. A spacer material may comprise an organic material or an inorganic material. In certain embodiments, a spacer material comprises parylene. Preferably, the spacer material comprises an ambipolar material. More preferably, it is non-quenching. In certain embodiments, for example, a spacer material between the emissive layer and a hole transport layer can comprise an ambipolar host or hole transport material, or nanoparticles such as nickel oxide, and other metal oxides.

Examples of hole transport materials 3 include organic material and inorganic materials. An example of an organic material that can be included in a hole transport layer includes an organic chromophore. The organic chromophore can include a phenyl amine, such as, for example, N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-(1,1′-biphenyl)-4,4′-diamine (TPD). Other hole transport layer can include (N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD), 4-4′-N,N′-dicarbazolyl-biphenyl (CBP), 4,4-, bis[N-(1-naphthyl)-N-phenylamino]biphenyl (NPD), etc., a polyaniline, a polypyrrole, a poly(phenylene vinylene), copper phthalocyanine, an aromatic tertiary amine or polynuclear aromatic tertiary amine, a 4,4′-bis(p-carbazolyl)-1,1′-biphenyl compound, N,N,N′,N′-tetraarylbenzidine, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)/polystyrene para-sulfonate (PSS) derivatives, poly-N-vinylcarbazole derivatives, polyphenylenevinylene derivatives, polyparaphenylene derivatives, polymethacrylate derivatives, poly(9,9-octylfluorene) derivatives, poly(spiro-fluorene) derivatives, N,N′-di(naphthalene-1-yl)-N,N′-diphenyl-benzidine (NPB), tris(3-methylphenylphenylamino)-triphenylamine (m-MTDATA), and poly(9,9′-dioctylfluorene-co-N-(4-butylphenyl)diphenylamine (TFB), and spiro-NPB.

In certain preferred embodiments, a hole transport layer comprises an organic small molecule material, a polymer, a spiro-compound (e.g., spiro-NPB), etc.

In certain embodiments of the inventions described herein, a hole transport layer can comprise an inorganic material. Examples of inorganic materials include, for example, inorganic semiconductor materials capable of transporting holes. The inorganic material can be amorphous or polycrystalline. Examples of such inorganic materials and other information related to fabrication of inorganic hole transport materials that may be helpful are disclosed in International Application No. PCT/US2006/005184, filed 15 Feb. 2006, for “Light Emitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals, which published as WO 2006/088877 on 26 Aug. 2006, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Hole transport materials comprising, for example, an inorganic material such as an inorganic semiconductor material, can be deposited at a low temperature, for example, by a known method, such as a vacuum vapor deposition method, an ion-plating method, sputtering, inkjet printing, sol-gel, etc.

Organic hole transport materials may be deposited by known methods such as a vacuum vapor deposition method, a sputtering method, a dip-coating method, a spin-coating method, a casting method, a bar-coating method, a roll-coating method, and other film deposition methods. Preferably, organic layers are deposited under ultra-high vacuum (e.g., ≤10⁻⁸ torr), high vacuum (e.g., from about 10⁻⁸ torr to about 10⁻⁵ torr), or low vacuum conditions (e.g., from about 10⁻⁵ torr to about 10⁻³ torr).

Hole transport materials comprising organic materials and other information related to fabrication of organic charge transport layers that may be helpful are disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/253,612 for “Method And System For Transferring A Patterned Material”, filed 21 Oct. 2005, and Ser. No. 11/253,595 for “Light Emitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals”, filed 21 Oct. 2005, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The hole transport material is preferably included in the device as a layer. In certain embodiments, the layer can have a thickness in a range from about 10 nm to about 500 nm.

Device 10 includes a hole-injection material 2. The hole-injection material may comprise a separate hole injection material or may comprise an upper portion of the hole transport layer that has been doped, preferably p-type doped. The hole-injection material can be inorganic or organic. Examples of organic hole injection materials include, but are not limited to, LG-101 (see, for example, paragraph [0024] of EP 1 843 411 A1) and other HIL materials available from LG Chem. LTD. Other organic hole injection materials can be used. Examples of p-type dopants include, but are not limited to, stable, acceptor-type organic molecular material, which can lead to an increased hole conductivity in the doped layer, in comparison with a non-doped layer. In certain embodiments, a dopant comprising an organic molecular material can have a high molecular mass, such as, for example, at least 300 amu. Examples of dopants include, without limitation, F₄-TCNQ, FeCl₃, etc. Examples of doped organic materials for use as a hole injection material include, but are not limited to, an evaporated hole transport material comprising, e.g., 4, 4′, 4″-tris (diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA) that is doped with tetrafluoro-tetracyano-quinodimethane (F₄-TCNQ); p-doped phthalocyanine (e.g., zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc) doped with F₄-TCNQ (at, for instance, a molar doping ratio of approximately 1:30); N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-bis(1-naphthyl)-1,1′biphenyl-4,4″diamine (alpha-NPD) doped with F₄-TCNQ. See J. Blochwitz, et al., “Interface Electronic Structure Of Organic Semiconductors With Controlled Doping Levels”. Organic Electronics 2 (2001) 97-104; R. Schmechel, 48, Internationales Wissenschaftliches Kolloquium, Technische Universtaat Ilmenau, 22-25 Sep. 2003; C. Chan et al., “Contact Potential Difference Measurements Of Doped Organic Molecular Thin Films”, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 22(4), July/August 2004. The disclosures of the foregoing papers are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. See also, Examples of p-type doped inorganic hole transport materials are described in U.S. Patent Application No. 60/653,094 entitled “Light Emitting Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals, filed 16 Feb. 2005, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Examples of p-type doped organic hole transport materials are described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/795,420 of Beatty et al, for “Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals And A Layer Including A Doped Organic Material And Methods”, filed 27 Apr. 2006, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

As shown in FIG. 1, anode 1 may comprise an electrically conductive metal or its oxide that can easily inject holes. Examples include, but are not limited to, ITO, aluminum, aluminum-doped zinc oxide (AZO), silver, gold, etc. Other suitable anode materials are known and can be readily ascertained by the skilled artisan. The anode material can be deposited using any suitable technique. In certain embodiments, the anode can be patterned.

In certain embodiments, the light-emitting device may be fabricated by sequentially forming the cathode 6, the electron transport material comprising an inorganic material 5, the emissive material 4, the hole transport material 3, and the anode 2. This sequential approach avoids the deposition of the emissive material comprising quantum dots directly onto an organic material.

In certain embodiments, an adhesion promoter can be included between the electron transport material and the emissive material. One example of a suitable adhesion promoter is ozone treatment of the upper surface of the electron transport material. Other adhesion promoters can be used.

In certain embodiments, the electrode (e.g., anode or cathode) materials and other materials are selected based on the light transparency characteristics thereof so that a device can be prepared that emits light from the top surface thereof. A top emitting device can be advantageous for constructing an active matrix device (e.g., a display). In certain embodiments, the electrode (e.g., anode or cathode) materials and other materials are selected based on light transparency characteristics thereof so that a device can be prepared that emits light from the bottom surface thereof.

As mentioned above, the device can further include a substrate (not shown in the figure). Examples of substrate materials include, without limitation, glass, plastic, insulated metal foil.

In certain embodiments, a device can further include a passivation or other protective layer that can be used to protect the device from the environment. For example, a protective glass layer can be included to encapsulate the device. Optionally a desiccant or other moisture absorptive material can be included in the device before it is sealed, e.g., with an epoxy, such as a UV curable epoxy. Other desiccants or moisture absorptive materials can be used.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for preparing a light emitting device, such as, for example, a device as illustrated in FIG. 1. The method comprising: forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons on a cathode, wherein the material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an inorganic material; applying an emissive layer comprising quantum dots thereover; forming a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising an organic material over the emissive layer; forming a layer comprising a hole injection material over the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes; and forming an anode over the layer comprising a hole injection material.

Examples of materials that can be included in the method include those described herein.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated by reference can also be useful in practicing a method in accordance with the present invention.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a light emitting device including a pair of electrodes, a layer comprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots provided between the electrodes, and a layer comprising a material capable of transporting electrons comprising an inorganic material provided between the emissive layer and one of the electrodes, wherein the layer comprising the material capable of transporting electrons comprising an inorganic material comprises a stratified structure including two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities. The inorganic material included in different zones of the stratified structure can be doped or undoped forms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises an inorganic semiconductor material. For example, if a first zone comprises an intrinsic inorganic semiconductor material, a second zone, adjacent thereto, can comprise a doped inorganic semiconductor material; if a first zone comprises an n-type doped inorganic semiconductor material, a second zone, adjacent thereto, can comprise a slightly lower n-type doped or intrinsic inorganic semiconductor material. In certain embodiments, the inorganic semiconductor material that is doped can be a doped form of an intrinsic material included in another zone of the stratified structure. While these examples describe a stratified structure including two zones, a stratified structure can include more than two zones. The inorganic semiconductor material included in different zones of the stratified structure can be doped or undoped forms of the same or different materials.

In certain embodiments, the layer comprising a stratified structure can serve as a layer capable of transporting and injecting electrons. In certain embodiments, a zone in a layer comprising a stratified structure can have a predetermined conductivity so as to serve as a layer capable of transporting electrons, a layer capable of injecting electrons, and/or a layer capable of blocking holes. In certain embodiments, a zone can comprise a distinct layer.

In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal chalcogenide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal sulfide. In certain preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a metal oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises titanium dioxide. In certain more preferred embodiments, the inorganic material comprises zinc oxide. In certain embodiments, the inorganic material comprises a mixture of two or more inorganic materials. Other examples of inorganic semiconductor materials that can be used include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, a layer comprising an inorganic semiconductor material that includes a stratified structure as taught herein can serve as a layer capable of transporting electrons, injecting electrons, and/or blocking holes.

Examples of materials useful for the anode and cathode include those described elsewhere herein.

Quantum dots included in the emissive layer can include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, different conductivities can be accomplished, for example, by changing the carrier mobility and/or charge density of the material.

In certain embodiments including an inorganic material comprising a metal oxide, for example, conduction properties of layers comprising a metal oxide are highly dependent on the concentration of oxygen in the layer structure since vacancies are the main mode of carrier conduction. For example, in certain embodiments, to control the oxygen concentration in sputter deposited layers (e.g., made by magnetron RF sputter deposition) two properties of the deposition can be altered. The power of deposition can be varied, increasing and decreasing the amount of oxygen that is incorporated in the layer. The powers and resulting conductivities are highly dependent on the material and the sputter system used. More oxygen can also be incorporated into the layer by adding oxygen to the sputter chamber gas environment which is often dominated by noble gases like Argon. Both the power and oxygen partial pressure can be used or customized to produce the desired layered metal oxide structure. Lowering the RF power during deposition can increase the conductivity of the layer, reducing the parasitic resistance of the layer. To deposit a low conductivity layer, oxygen is incorporated into the deposition ambient to place a thin insulating surface on the layer formed.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated by reference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a light emitting device comprising a pair of electrodes and a layer of a light emissive material provided between the electrodes, wherein light emission from the light emissive material occurs at a bias voltage across the device that is less than the energy in electron-Volts of the bandgap of the emissive material. In certain embodiments, the light emitting device includes an emissive material comprising quantum dots.

Examples of quantum dots included in the emissive layer can include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, other well known light emissive materials can be used or included in the device.

Examples of materials useful for the electrodes include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, additional layers described herein can also be included.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated by reference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In certain embodiments, the device comprises one of the light emitting devices taught herein.

In accordance with another aspect of there present invention, there is provided a light emitting device wherein the device has an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

In certain embodiments, a light emitting device comprising a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising an inorganic material, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, a hole injection material, and an anode, the device having an initial turn-on voltage that is not greater than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.

Examples of materials useful for the anode and cathode include those described elsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injection electrons include those described elsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes include those described elsewhere herein.

Examples of materials useful for the layer comprising a hole injection material include those described elsewhere herein.

In certain embodiments, additional layers described herein can also be included.

Other information and techniques described herein and incorporated by reference can also be useful with this aspect of the present invention.

In certain embodiments, the device comprises one of the light emitting devices taught herein.

In certain embodiments an additional hole transport material with a hole conductivity between that of the hole injection material and the hole transport material can be interposed between them. Additional hole transport materials can be interposed between two other hole conductive materials included in the device. Preferably, any additional interposed hole transport material will have a hole conductivity that falls in-between those of the hole transport materials between which it is interposed.

FIG. 2 schematically provides the band structure of an example of an embodiment of a light emitting device of the present invention. In the depicted example, a metal oxide is used as a layer that is electron transporting and injecting and hole blocking. Such layer can be fabricated with solution process or thermal evaporation. An electron transport layer including ZnO is preferred. In certain embodiments, ZnO can be preferably doped to form an ohmic contact with the cathode. In the depicted example, the hole transport layer (HTL) can comprise an organic material (e.g., small organic molecules (for example, TPD, spiro-TPB, NPB, spiro-NPB, etc.). In certain embodiments, the HTL can comprise an inorganic material. A hole injection layer (or p-type doped HTL) is also included in the depicted example to enhance hole supply from the anode. In the depicted structure, electrons are transported through the metal oxide and holes are transported through the HTL, excitons are generated in the quantum dot (QD) layer. The composition and size of the quantum dots are selected to achieve light emission with a predetermined color or wavelength.

A light-emitting device in accordance with the invention can be used to make a light-emitting device including red-emitting, green-emitting, and/or blue-emitting quantum dots. Other color light-emitting quantum dots can be included, alone or in combination with one or more other different quantum dots. In certain embodiments, separate layers of one or more different quantum dots may be desirable. In certain embodiments, a layer can include a mixture of two or more different quantum dots.

The present invention will be further clarified by the following non-limiting examples, which are intended to be exemplary of the present invention.

Examples

In the following examples, the quantum dots included in the emissive layer may comprise red-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “SOP”, “R-SOP”), green-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “GQD”), blue-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “BQD”), or yellow-emitting core/shell semiconductor nanocrystals (also abbreviated herein as “YQD”), which are prepared generally according to the following respective procedures. In any instances where a quantum dot is described by a “10×” modifier, the preparation is generally carried out on a scale approximately ten times that of the respective preparation procedure described below.

I. Quantum Dot Preparations Red-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation A. Synthesis of CdSe Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

230 mg of anhydrous cadmium acetate (Cd(OAc)₂) (1 mmol) (Prochem) and 4 mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (Strem 97%) is added to a 20 mL septum capped vial. The vial is suspended in a 140° C. oil bath (silicon oil). The content of the vial is degassed for about one-half hour. After the cadmium acetate solution is degassed, and the cadmium acetate is dissolved, the vacuum is closed and the vial is opened to nitrogen. The vial is removed from the oil bath and permitted to cool to room temperature while under nitrogen.

6.00 grams of Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem) and 0.668 grams of octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) (Polycarbon) are added to a 50 mL three necked round bottom flask. The ingredients are stirred and heated to a temperature of about 120° C. Once the flask reaches 120° C., the solution is degassed for 2 hours while maintained at 120° C. When the solution in the round bottom flask has finished degassing, the vacuum valve is closed and the flask is opened to nitrogen and stirred.

4 mL of the cadmium acetate solution is mixed and injected into the round bottom flask via a septum cap from a syringe filled under nitrogen. The temperature is increased to about 270° C. When the temperature of the solution in the round bottom flask stabilizes at 270° C., 2 mL of Tri-n-butylphosphine (TBP) (Strem 99%) is injected into the round bottom flask from a 5 mL syringe. When the contents of the round bottom flask has restabilized at 270° C., 1.1 mL of Tri-n-butylphosphine selenide (TBPSe) (1.5M) is injected into the round bottom flask. The temperature controller is adjusted to 250° C. After a brief delay (5 secs), the solution turns yellow then red.

Periodic samples are taken until an absorbance of ˜560 nm is obtained, at which time the heating mantle is removed and the solution is permitted to cool while stirring. When the temperature is 100° C., the solution is divided into half into 2 centrifuge tubes, and 2× volume of 3:1 methanol/isopropanol is added to each tube to precipitate semiconductor nanocrystal cores. The supernatant is poured off, and the semiconductor nanocrystal cores are mixed with hexane (minimum volume 2.5 mL in each tube). The contents of the two centrifuge tubes are then combined, centrifuged for 5 minutes at 4000 rpm, and filtered with hexane using a 0.2 micron filter.

B. Overcoating the CdSe Cores to Prepare CdSe/CdZnS Semiconductor Nanocrystals

-   -   Two 5 mL syringes are prepared in the glove box with the         precursors for the overcoating.     -   The first syringe: 4 mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (97%         Strem), 48.24 mg dimethylcadmium, and 41.81 mg diethylzinc.     -   The second syringe: 4 mL of Tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (97%         Strem) and 241.68 mg of Bis(TMS)sulfide.     -   The overcoating precursor mixture for each syringe is prepared         by placing the Tri-n-octylphosphine into an 8 mL glass vial. The         precursors (dimethylcadmium, diethylzinc, or Bis(TMS)sulfide)         are then dripped into the Tri-n-octylphosphine using a         micropipette until the right weight of material has been added         to each vial. The solution is mixed gently with the vial capped         and then drawn up into the 5 mL syringe.     -   Micro capillary tubing is then loaded onto each syringe and a         small amount of solution is pushed through to clear the tubing         of nitrogen. (This can optionally be carried out inside a glove         box).

Ten (10) grams of Tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem) and 0.8 grams of octadecylphosphonic acid (ODPA) (Polycarbon Industries) are added to a 4 neck 50 mL round bottom flask including a football-shaped magnetic stirrer bar. The flask is also equipped with a rubber septum on two of the four necks, a distillation column on the middle neck and the temperature probe in the last neck. The contents of the flask are heated to 130° C. while under nitrogen. When the temperature reaches 130° C., the nitrogen line is closed, and the flask is slowly opened up to vacuum. The contents of the flask are degassed under vacuum at 130° C. for roughly 2 hours. When the solution in the round bottom flask has finished degassing, the vacuum is closed and the flask is opened up to nitrogen. The temperature of the flask is set to 70° C. When the flask has lowered to 70° C., the CdSe cores prepared (approximately 0.09-to 0.1 mmol) as described above in hexane is added to the round bottom flask using a 5 mL syringe. The vacuum is slowly opened up and all of the hexane is removed from the flask, leaving behind the CdSe cores (this can take as long as an hour). When all of the hexane has been removed, the vacuum is closed and the flask is opened up to nitrogen. 0.48 mL of Decylamine [1:1 amine:phosphonic] (using 1 mL syringe) is added and the temperature is increased to 155° C. under nitrogen. The syringes are loaded into syringe pumps to introduce the two lines into the flask (one going through each septum, so that the micro capillary tubing is hugging the flask wall and about 0.5 cm submerged into the stirring solution), and the temperature of the flask is heated to 155° C.; injections are initiated once the temperature is above 110° C. When the flask is at 155° C., the syringe pumps are turned on and the two solutions are pumped into the flask at a rate of 2 mL/hour, with rapid stirring (this will take about two hours). When all of the overcoating solutions from the two syringes has been added to the flask, the syringe pump lines are removed from the flask. Optionally, the temperature can be turned down to 100° C., and 10 mL of toluene can be added and allowed to sit overnight under nitrogen.

C. Clean Up of Core CdSe/CdZnS Core-Shell Semiconductor Nanocrystals:

The total growth solution is divided into two aliquots, each being put into a 50 mL centrifuge tube. An excess ˜30 mL of a 3:1 MeOH/Isopropanol mixture is added to each centrifuge tube and stirred. The centrifuge tubes are centrifuged 5 minutes at 4000 rpm. The particles in each tube are dispersed in about 10 mL of hexane with stirring using a vortexer. The centrifuge tubes are then centrifuged for 5 minutes at 4000 rpm. The supernatant includes the hexane and the overcoated cores. The supernatant from each tube is placed into another two centrifuge tubes. (The solid is a salt that has formed and is waste.) The hexane/overcoated core supernatant is filtered using a 0.2 μm syringe filter. An excess of 3:1 methanol/isopropanol is added to each tube to precipitate the overcoated cores. The tubes are centrifuged for 5 minutes at 4000 rpm. The supernatant is poured off. The purified overcoated cores are now at the bottom of the tube and the supernatant is waste.

Green-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation A. Synthesis of CdZnSe Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

ZnSe semiconductor nanocrystals are prepared by rapidly injecting 86 mg (0.7 mmol) diethyl zinc (Strem) and 1 mL tri-n-octylphosphine selenide (TOP) (97% Strem) (1M) dispersed in 5 mL of tri-n-octylphosphine (TOP) (97% Strem), into a round bottom flask containing 7 grams of degassed oleylamine (distilled from 98% Sigma-Aldrich and degassed at 120° C. under nitrogen with stirring) at 310° C., and then growing at 270° C. for 30 minutes to one hour.

8 mL of the above ZnSe semiconductor nanocrystal growth solution is transferred, while at 160° C. into a degassed solution of 16 grams tri-n-octylphosphine oxide (TOPO) (99% Strem), and 0.665 grams (4 mmol) hexylphosphonic acid (HPA) (Polycarbon Industries), which is also at 160° C. A solution of 1.1 mmol dimethylcadmium (Strem) and 1.2 mL TOPSe (1M) dispersed in 8 mL TOP (97% Strem) is then introduced dropwise (1 drop/˜seconds) via a syringe pump into the ZnSe semiconductor nanocrystal growth solution/TOPO/HPA mixture, which is at 150° C. The solution is then stirred at 150° C. for 21 hours. Before overcoating the CdZnSe cores with CdZnS, the CdZnSe cores are isolated by precipitating them out of solution twice with a miscible non-solvent.

B. Overcoating the CdZnSe Cores to Prepare CdZnSe/CdZnS Semiconductor Nanocrystals

The CdZnS shell is grown by introducing dropwise a solution of dimethylcadmium (20% of total moles of cation for a shell of predetermined thickness) (Strem), diethylzinc (Strem), and hexamethyldisithiane (2 fold excess of amount for a shell of predetermined thickness) (Fluka) in 8 mL of TOP into a degassed solution of 10 grams of TOPO (99% Strem) and 0.4 grams (2.4 mmol) HPA (Polycarbon Industries), which contains the CdZnSe cores, at a temperature of 140° C. (the CdZnSe cores dispersed in hexane are added to the degasses TOPO/HPA solution and the hexane is pulled off at 70° C. under vacuum prior to addition of the shell precursors).

Blue-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation A. Synthesis of CdZnS Semiconductor Nanocrystal Cores

0.050 g CdO (99.98% Puratronic) and 0.066 g of ZnO (99.99% Sigma Aldrich) is weighed out into a 100 mL three necked flask. 4 mL oleic acid (90% tech grade from Aldrich) and 32 mL octadecene (ODE) (90% tech grade from Aldrich) are added to the flask. The flask is set clamped on a heating mantle. One of the necks of the flask is fitted with a condenser connected to a Schlenck line through a vacuum adaptor. A temperature probe connected to a digital temperature controller is fitted to one of the two remaining flask necks. The third neck of the flask is then fitted with a septum cap. The contents of the flask are degassed at 80° C. for 20 minutes in vacuo (200 millitorr).

Separately 0.035 g of sulfur (99.99% Strem) is weighed into a septum capped vial including a stir bar. 10 mL ODE (tech grade) is added to the vial. The vial is heated in an oil bath (connected to the Schlenck line) under vacuum to 80° C., and degassed for 20 minutes. After 20 minutes, vacuum lines are closed, the vial is back-filled with nitrogen and the temperature is raised to 130° C. to dissolve sulfur in ODE. When all the sulfur is dissolved into ODE, the vial is removed from the oil bath and allowed to cool to room temperature under nitrogen atmosphere.

When the degassing time is completed, the contents of the three necked flask is stirred at a low stir rate (e.g., a setting of 4) and heated to 290° C. and held for 20 minutes at that temperature. Then temperature is raised to 310° C. under nitrogen. When the temperature reaches 305° C., stir rate is increased (e.g., from a setting of 4 to a setting of 5) and the sample is allowed to heat to 310° C. until all the oxides have dissolved to give a clear solution. The temperature controller is then set to 300° C. Once the temperature falls to 300° C., approximately 8 mL of S in ODE is rapidly injected after which stir rate is maintained (e.g., at a setting of 5). The temperature of the solution is observed to fall to about 265-270° C. and climb back to 300 C in ˜5 minutes. After 3 hours, heating is stopped by removing the heating mantle and the flask is allowed to cool to room temperature. The contents of the flask are transferred to a degassed vial under nitrogen, which is transferred to an inert atmosphere box for further purification. Precipitation of dots may be observed, keep overnight in inert box.

The purification method is as follows:

-   -   The solution is divided in half, each half being added to a         separate centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 5 min, 4000 rpm.         For each tube, the solvent is poured off and the solid retained         in the tube. 20 mL butanol is added to each tube, followed by         mixing, and then centrifuging. The supernatant butanol is         decanted and discarded. 10 mL methanol is then added to each         tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. The supernatant         methanol is decanted and discarded. 10 mL hexane is then added         to each tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. Each tube is         centrifuged again The supernatant hexane collected from each         tube is then poured into a clean tube. (The solids are         discarded.) The nanoparticles in each vial are precipitated by         the addition of 20 mL butanol. The vial is centrifuged and the         liquid decanted and discarded. 10 mL methanol is then added to         each tube, followed by mixing and centrifuging. The supernatant         is discarded. The resulting solid is dispersed in anhydrous         hexane and filtered through a 0.2 micron filter.

B. Overcoating CdZnS Cores to Prepare CdZnS/ZnS Semiconductor Nanocrystals

5 mL oleylamine and 5 mL trioctylphosphine are added to a degassed 4 necked flask equipped with a condenser and temperature probe connected to a digital temperature controller. The condenser is connected to a Schlenck line. The contents of the flask are degassed at 100° C. for 2 hours.

In a glove box, precursor reagents are prepared as follows:

-   -   28 mg diethyl zinc is added to a vial containing 4 mL TOP     -   81 mg hexamethyl disilthiane is added to another vial containing         4 mL TOP.

The contents of the two vials are drawn into two separate syringes and capped.

After 2 hours of degassing, the temperature in the flask is reduced to 70° C. Vacuum lines are closed and the flask is opened to a positive nitrogen atmosphere line. 3.3 mL cores (0.092 mmol) dispersed in hexane is drawn into a syringe in the glove box and injected into the flask. The nitrogen line is closed and the flask is slowly opened to the vacuum lines to extract hexane from the flask. Degassing is continued under vacuum until all of the hexane is removed. Once the degassing is completed, the vacuum lines are closed and positive nitrogen atmosphere is introduced into the flask.

The needles on the syringes containing the precursor reagents are removed and replaced with microcapillary tubes, the other end of which is in vials through syringe needle. Air bubbles are removed from the syringes and the syringes are set on a syringe pump ready for injection of the contents into the flask. The flow rate of the syringe pump is adjusted for a flow rate of 50 microliters per minute.

The temperature of the flask is raised to 170° C. The end of the microcapillary tube attached to the syringe containing hexamethyl disilthiane is introduced into the second septa of the flask using an 18 gauge needle and place in such a way that the type of the microcapillary tube is immersed into the contents of the flask. When the temperature reaches 170° C., the injection of hexamethyl disilthiane is started. After a delay of 2 minutes, the tip of the microcapillary tube of the other syringe containing the diethyl zinc precursor reagent is introduced into the flask with an 18 gauge needle through the other septum of the flask.

Once the addition of the two precursor reagents is completed, the temperature of the flask is allowed to drop to 90° C. and the contents of the flask is transferred into a degassed vial using a 20 mL syringe.

The vial containing the reaction mixture is then transferred into the glove box for isolation of the nanoparticles from the reaction mixture.

10 mL of [anhydrous] hexane is added to the vial in the glove box. The reaction mixture is then divided in half, each half being added to two separate centrifuge tubes. 20 mL 1:3 isopropanol:methanol solvent mixture is added to each of the tubes, after which each is mixed in the vortex and centrifuged. The supernatant is discarded. 5 mL hexane is added to each tube and 1:3 isopropanol:methanol solvent mixture is added dropwise to each tube to reprecipitate the nanoparticles. A slight excess of the solvent mixture is added. The contents of each tube is mixed and centrifuged. The supernatant is discarded and the precipitated nanoparticles are re-dispersed in 5 mL hexane.

For additional information concerning the preparation of quantum dots, see also International Application No. PCT/US2007/013152, filed Jun. 4, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance” and International Application No. PCT/US2007/24305, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Breen, et al., for “Blue Light Emitting Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And Devices Including Same”, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Yellow-Emitting Quantum Dot Preparation A. Synthesis of CdSe Cores:

2 mmol cadmium acetate was dissolved in 35.8 mmol of tri-n-octylphosphine at 140° C. in a 20 mL vial and then dried and degassed for one hour. 62 mmol of trioctylphosphine oxide and 8 mmol of octadecylphosphonic acid were added to a 250 mL 3-neck flask and dried and degassed at 120° C. for one hour. After degassing, the Cd solution was added to the oxide/acid flask and the mixture was heated to 270° C. under nitrogen. Once the temperature reached 270° C., 32.3 mmol of tri-n-butylphosphine was injected into the flask. The temperature was brought back to 270° C. where 4.4 mL of 1.5 M TBP-Se was then rapidly injected. The heating mantle was immediately removed from the reaction flask and the temperature of the reaction was allowed to cool to room temperature. The first absorption peak of the nanocrystals reached 515 nm. The CdSe cores were precipitated out of the growth solution inside a nitrogen atmosphere glovebox by adding a 3:1 mixture of methanol and isopropanol. The isolated cores were then dispersed in hexane and used to make core-shell materials.

B. Overcoating of CdSe Cores to Synthesis of CdSe/CdZnS Core-Shell Nanocrystals:

25.86 mmol of trioctylphosphine oxide and 2.4 mmol of octadecylphosphonic acid were loaded into a 50 mL four-neck flask. The mixture was then dried and degassed in the reaction vessel by heating to 120° C. for about an hour. The flask was then cooled to 70° C. and the hexane solution containing isolated CdSe cores (0.1 mmol Cd content) was added to the reaction mixture. The hexane was removed under reduced pressure and then 2.4 mmol of decylamine was added to the reaction mixture. Dimethyl cadmium, diethyl zinc, and hexamethyldisilathiane were used as the Cd, Zn, and S precursors, respectively. The Cd and Zn were mixed in equimolar ratios while the S was in two-fold excess relative to the Cd and Zn. The Cd/Zn (0.37 mmol of dimethylcadmium and diethylzinc) and S (1.46 mmol of hexamethyldisilathiane) samples were each dissolved in 4 mL of trioctylphosphine inside a nitrogen atmosphere glove box. Once the precursor solutions were prepared, the reaction flask was heated to 155° C. under nitrogen. The precursor solutions were added dropwise over the course of 2 hours at 155° C. using a syringe pump. After the shell growth, the nanocrystals were transferred to a nitrogen atmosphere glovebox and precipitated out of the growth solution by adding a 3:1 mixture of methanol and isopropanol. The resulting precipitate was then dispersed in hexane and precipitated out of solution for a second time by adding a 3:1 mixture of methanol and isopropanol. The isolated core-shell nanocrystals were then dispersed in hexane and used to make light emitting devices including quantum dots as described below.

II. Test Devices of Table 1 A. Fabrication of Standard (Comparative) Test Device

A standard device was fabricated that includes R-SOP (CdSe/CdZnS core-shell semiconductor nanocrystals) and charge transport layers comprising organic materials.

The device was made as follows:

-   -   Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO)         electrode on one surface (obtained from Osram Malaysia) is         cleaned in an oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove         contaminants and oxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place         on 100% oxygen at about 20 psi. The glass is placed on a water         cooled plate to help control the increase in temperature during         cleaning.     -   A layer of hole injection material (PEDOT, obtained from H.C.         Starck, GmbH) (HIL) is spun onto the surface of the glass         including the patterned electrode at a speed of 4000 RPM, to a         thickness of about 750 Angstroms. This step is carried out under         ambient conditions (i.e., not in a glove box). The PEDOT coated         glass is then heated on a 120° C. hot plate in a chamber (<20         ppm water & <10 ppm oxygen), in a HEPA filter environment         (approx. Class 1), in a nitrogen atmosphere for >20 minutes to         dry the PEDOT. The PEDOT coated glass is then allowed to cool to         room temperature.     -   A layer of hole transport material         (N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD)         (OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent         Technologies. Taiwan)) is then evaporated onto the PEDOT layer         in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber,         obtained from Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the         chamber is pumped down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better. (In Table 1 and         Figures, spiro-TPD is referred to as E105.)     -   The spiro-TPD coated glass is then returned to the nitrogen         environment and stamp-printed with an ink including the SOP         CdSe/CdZnS core-shell semiconductor nanocrystals in hexane. The         emissive layer has a thickness of approximately one monolayer of         quantum dots. [OD=0.03]     -   After printing, the device was returned to the deposition         chamber and pumped back down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better for         evaporation of the next layer, which can be a hole blocking         layer or an electron transport layer.     -   A layer of electron transport material of Alq3 (OLED grade,         gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent Technologies,         Taiwan) is deposited.     -   Each of the vapor deposited layers are patterned with use of         shadow masks. After deposition of the electron transport         material layer, the mask is changed before deposition of the         metal cathode.

The details of the materials and layer thickness for the Standard device are summarized in Table 1 below.

B. Fabrication of Other Test Devices Identified in Table 1

The devices identified in Table 1 (other than the above-described Standard device) were generally fabricated as set forth below. The details of each device (materials, thicknesses, etc) are set forth in Table 1 below.

-   -   Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO)         electrode on one surface (obtained from Osram Malaysia) is         cleaned in an oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove         contaminants and oxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place         on 100% oxygen at about 20 psi. The glass is placed on a water         cooled plate to help control the increase in temperature during         cleaning.     -   An electron transport layer comprising zinc oxide is prepared as         follows. A zinc acetate [Zn(ac)] solution (157 g/L) in 96%         2-methoxy ethanol and 4% ethanolamine is spun coated at 2000 rpm         onto the ITO. (The zinc acetate was obtained from Sigma         Aldrich.)     -   Subsequent annealing at 300° C. on hot plate for 5 minutes in         air converts Zn(ac) to Zinc oxide. Rinsing of the annealed         Zn(ac) layer in de-ionized water, ethanol and acetone is         expected to remove any residual organic material from the         surface, leaving only crystalline ZnO film with nanoscale domain         size. Then the nanoparticle film is baked at 200° C. to remove         the solvent residue. The thickness of ZnO film is confirmed by         profilometer, typically around 45 nm for single spin.     -   The metal oxide coated glass is then transferred into         nitrogen-filled glove box, which normally has oxygen and water         levels below 1 ppm. A coating formulation including quantum dots         in hexane is spun coated on ZnO surface at 3000 rpm for 1         minute. The quantum dot film thickness is optimized by using         various optical density solutions. Through the device         performance optimization, the thickness of quantum dot film is         kept around 25 nm, and is confirmed by atomic force microscopy         (AFM).     -   After the quantum dots are deposited, the device is returned to         the deposition chamber and pumped back down to 10⁻⁶ torr or         better for evaporation of the next layer.     -   A 50 nm layer of hole transport material         (N,N′-bis(3-methylphenyl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-spiro (spiro-TPD)         (OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) from Luminescent         Technologies, Taiwan)) is then evaporated onto the emissive         layer in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber,         obtained from Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the         chamber is pumped down to 10⁻⁶ torr or better. The hole         transport material are typically (OLED grade, gradient         sublimation purified) obtained from Luminescent Technologies,         Taiwan)).     -   A hole injection layer (5% F4-TCNQ and E-105) (20 nm) is formed         over the hole transport layer by co-evaporation techniques         similar to those described above for preparing the hole         transport layer.     -   Each of the vapor deposited layers are patterned with use of         shadow masks. After deposition of the hole transport material         layer and hole injection layer, the mask is changed before         deposition of a 100 nm Al anode.

TABLE 1 Device Cathode ETL QD HTL HIL Anode Standard LiF/Al Alq₃ SOP E-105 PEDOT: PSS ITO Device (5 Å/100 nm) (50 nm) (~1 monolayer) (50 nm) Red ITO ZnO SOP E-105 5% F4-TCNQ Al Device (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105 (FIG. 4) Green ITO ZnO GQD E-105 5% F4-TCNQ Al Device (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105 (FIG. 5A) Blue ITO ZnO BQD E-105 5% F4-TCNQ Al Device (OD 0.025) (50 nm) & E-105 (FIG. 5B)

Various performance data for the devices of Table 1 are graphically presented in FIGS. 3-6. FIGS. 3 and 4 graphically present performance data for the Red Device described in Table 1. FIG. 5 graphically presents performance data for the Green Device (A) and Blue Device (B) of the Examples. Lifetime improvements that can be achieved in certain embodiments of the invention are illustrated in FIG. 6, which graphically present lifetime data for the Red Device and the Standard Device of the Examples.

In certain embodiments, a device is preferably baked or heated after fabrication, but before encapsulation. In certain embodiments, baking (e.g., at 80° C. on a hot plate in a nitrogen atmosphere) can improve device performance.

III. Test Devices of Table 2

The devices identified in Table 2 were generally fabricated as set forth below. The details of each device (materials, thicknesses, etc) are set forth in Table 2 below. (Layer thicknesses for the test devices are listed in Table 2 parenthetically.)

A. Sol Gel Metal Oxide Synthesis: TiOx Preparation:

The sol-gel procedure for producing TiOx is as follows: titanium(IV) isopropoxide (Ti[OCH(CH₃)₂]4, Aldrich, 99.999%, 10 mL) was prepared as a precursor and mixed with 2-methoxyethanol (CH₃OCH₂CH₂OH. Aldrich, 99.9+%, 50 mL) and ethanolamine (H₂NCH₂CH₂OH, Aldrich, 99+%, 5 mL) in a three-necked flask equipped with a condenser, a thermometer, and an argon-gas inlet/outlet. Then, the mixed solution was heated to 80° C. for 2 h in a silicon-oil bath under magnetic stirring, followed by heating to 120° C. for 1 h. The two-step heating (80 and 120° C.) was then repeated. The typical TiOx precursor solution was prepared in isopropyl alcohol.

ZnO Preparation:

Test devices identified in Table 2 that include a ZnO layer were fabricated on patterned ITO substrates that were sonicated in acetone and isopropyl alcohol for 10 minutes each, followed by 6 minutes O₂ plasma treatment. A zinc acetate (99.999% grade from Sigma-Aldrich) [Zn(ac) solution (157 g/L) in 96% 2-methoxy ethanol (from Alfa) and 4% ethanolamine (from Sigma-Aldrich) was spin coated at 2000 rpm onto the ITO. This step is carried out under ambient conditions (i.e., not in a glove box). Subsequent annealing at 300° C. for 30 minutes in air converted the Zn(ac) to ZnO. The resulting film was rinsed in de-ionized water, methanol, acetone and methanol then dried in the glove box (<1 ppm water & <1 ppm oxygen) at 200° C. for 5 minutes on hot plate.

Mixed ZnO—TiOx Preparation:

The spin coating sol-gel formulations used to fabricate a mixed ZnO—TiOx layer utilized a mixture of a ZnO spin coating sol-gel formulation (prepared substantially as described above) and a TiOx spin coating sol-gel formulation (prepared substantially as described above). The ZnO and TiOx formulations are mixed in a predetermined proportion.

B. Device Fabrication Process

Glass (50 mm×50 mm) with patterned indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode on one surface (obtained from Thin Film Devices, Anaheim, Calif.) is cleaned in oxygen plasma for about 6 minutes to remove contaminants and oxygenate the surface. The cleaning takes place on 100% oxygen at about 20 psi. The glass is placed on a water cooled plate to help control the increase in temperature during cleaning.

An electron transport layer comprising a metal oxide was formed by sol-gel technique (ZnO and/or TiO_(x), as indicated in Table 2), prepared substantially as described above). The metal oxide coated glass is then returned to the nitrogen environment and spin-coated with an ink including quantum dots in hexane. In order to get rid of residual solvent trapped in the quantum dot layer, post-baking on partial finished device at 80° C. on hot plate (in glove box) is favorable. Then, the device is returned to the deposition chamber and pumped back down to 10⁻⁷ torr or better for evaporation of the next layer.

A layer of hole transport material is then evaporated onto the emissive layer in a deposition chamber (an {acute over (Å)}MOD chamber, obtained from Angstrom Engineering, Ottowa, Canada) after the chamber is pumped down to 10⁻⁷ torr or better. The hole transport material are typically (OLED grade, gradient sublimation purified) obtained from Luminescent Technologies, Taiwan).

If a hole injection layer is included in the device, it is formed over the hole transport layer. Each of the vapor deposited layers are patterned with use of shadow masks. After deposition of the hole transport material layer and hole injection layer, the mask is changed before deposition of the metal anode.

After device fabrication done in evaporation chamber, the finished device is encapsulated with glass lid and ready for testing.

TABLE II Device Cathode ETL OP HTL HIL Anode A ITO — RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (~35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) B ITO/Al(5 nm) — RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (~35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) C ITO/Al(5 nm) — RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) E ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) F ITO ZnO:TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (1:1) (45nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) G ITO ZnO:TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (2:1) (45 nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) H ITO TiOx RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (60 nm) (10 nm) (100 nm) I ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (55nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) J ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB WO₃ Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (55nm) (100 nm) K ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB — Al (45 nm) (35 nm) (55nm) (100 nm) L ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB WO₃ Al (45nm) (35 nm) (55nm) (100 nm) M (FIG. ITO ZnO RQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al 11&12) (45 nm) (35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm) N (FIG. ITO ZnO YQD spiro-NPB LG-101 Al 13 & 14) (45 nm) (35 nm) (55 nm) (15 nm) (100 nm)

Various performance data for the devices of described in Table 2 are graphically presented in FIGS. 7-15.

FIG. 7 shows I-V curves of inverted structures with LG-101 and WO3 as hole injection layers respectively. Device K is inverted structure with no hole injection layer. From the data, device K has insufficient current injection through anode.

FIG. 8 shows device luminance efficiency in different device structures. The most efficient device is a device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention that includes small molecular material LG 101 as hole injection layer. Without a hole injection layer, luminance (see Device K) is not observable.

FIG. 9 shows the luminance efficiency of a device without an electron transport & injection layer and without a hole blocking layer.

FIG. 10 shows luminance of inverted device without an electron transport & injection layer and without a hole blocking layer.

FIG. 11 shows device performance for a device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention that includes an emissive layer including red-light emitting quantum dots. Peak external quantum efficiency (EQE) 2.1% reaches at 3.46 v with brightness of 9671 nits.

FIG. 12 shows a device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention that includes an emissive layer including red-light emitting quantum dots operating at very low voltage. Inset is EL spectrum of this device. It is noticed that the turn on voltage for this device is extremely low.

FIG. 13 shows a device in accordance with an embodiment of the invention that includes an emissive layer including yellow-light emitting quantum dots operating at very low voltage. The turn on voltage for this device is below the energy required to overcome band gap of yellow emitter, which is 2.1 V. Inset is EL spectrum of a yellow quantum dot light emitting device. Peak brightness 41300 cd/m2 is obtained at 8V.

FIG. 14 shows efficiency of Device N at certain luminance. The peak luminance efficiency 9.8 lm/W reaches at 3V with 2620 nits. The peak luminance efficiency 9.46 cd/A reaches at 3.5V with 6800 nits.

FIG. 15 shows examples of mixing ZnO with TiOx, which may improve the device efficiency by charge balance.

Light-emitting devices in accordance with various embodiments of the invention may be incorporated into a wide variety of consumer products, including flat panel displays, computer monitors, televisions, billboards, lights for interior or exterior illumination and/or signaling, heads up displays, fully transparent displays, flexible displays, laser printers, telephones, cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptop computers, digital cameras, camcorders, viewfinders, micro-displays, vehicles, a large area wall, theater or stadium screen, a sign, lamps and various solid state lighting devices.

Other materials, techniques, methods, applications, and information that may be useful with the present invention are described in: International Application No. PCT/US2007/008873, filed Apr. 9, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan et al., for “Composition Including Material, Methods Of Depositing Material, Articles Including Same And Systems For Depositing Material”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/09255, filed Apr. 13, 2007, of Anc, et al., for “Methods Of Depositing Material, Methods Of Making A Device, And System”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/003411, filed Feb. 8, 2007, of Beatty, et al., for “Device Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals And A Layer Including A Doped Organic Material And Methods”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/14711, filed Jun. 25, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, for “Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial. Methods For Fabricating A Device, And Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/14705, filed Jun. 25, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial, Methods For Fabricating A Device, Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices And Compositions”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/008705, filed Apr. 9, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Methods And Articles Including Nanomaterial”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/014706, filed Jun. 25, 2007, of coe-sullivan, et al., for “Methods And Articles Including Nanomaterial”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/003525, filed Feb. 8, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Displays Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals And Methods Of Making Same”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/008721, filed Apr. 9, 2007, of Cox, et al., for “Methods Of Depositing Nanomaterial & Methods Of Making A Device”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/019797, filed Sep. 12, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “A Composite Including Nanoparticles. Methods, And Products Including A Composite”: International Application No. PCT/US2007/019796, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., filed Sep. 12, 2007, for “Electroluminescent Display Useful For Displaying A Predetermined Pattern”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24320, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Clough, et al., for “Nanocrystals Including A Group IIIa Element And A Group Va Element, Method, Composition. Device And Other Products”; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/971,887, filed Sep. 12, 2007, of Breen, et al., for “Functionalized Semiconductor Nanocrystals And Method”; U.S. Patent Application No. 60/992,598, filed Dec. 5, 2007, of Breen, et al., “Functionalized Semiconductor Nanocrystals And Method”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24305, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Breen, et al., for “Blue Light Emitting Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And Devices Including Same”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24306, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Ramprasad, for “Semiconductor Nanocrystal And Compositions And Devices Including Same”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/013152, filed Jun. 4, 2007, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24750, of Coe-Sullivan, et al., filed Dec. 3, 2007 “Improved Composites And Devices Including Nanoparticles”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/24310, filed Nov. 21, 2007, of Kazlas, et al., for “Light-Emitting Devices And Displays With Improved Performance”; International Application No. PCT/US2007/003677, filed Feb. 14, 2007, of Bulovic, et al., for “Solid State Lighting Devices Including Semiconductor Nanocrystals & Methods”, U.S. Patent Application No. 61/016,227, filed 21 Dec. 2007, of Coe-Sullivan et al., for “Compositions, Optical Component, System Including an Optical Component, and Devices”, U.S. Patent Application No. 60/949,306, filed 12 Jul. 2007, of Linton, et al., for “Compositions, Methods For Depositing Nanomaterial. Methods For Fabricating A Device, And Methods For Fabricating An Array Of Devices”, and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/992,598, filed 5 Dec. 2007. The disclosures of each of the foregoing listed patent documents are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to an emissive material includes reference to one or more of such materials.

As used herein, “top” and “bottom” are relative positional terms, based upon a location from a reference point. More particularly, “top” means furthest away from the substrate, while “bottom” means closest to the substrate. For example, for a light-emitting device including two electrodes, the bottom electrode is the electrode closest to the substrate, and is generally the first electrode fabricated; the top electrode is the electrode that is more remote from the substrate, on the top side of the light-emitting material. The bottom electrode has two surfaces, a bottom surface closest to the substrate, and a top surface further away from the substrate. Where, e.g., a first layer is described as disposed or deposited “over” a second layer, the first layer is disposed further away from substrate. There may be other layers between the first and second layer, unless it is otherwise specified. For example, a cathode may be described as “disposed over” an anode, even though there are various organic and/or inorganic layers in between.

The entire contents of all patent publications and other publications cited in this disclosure are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Further, when an amount, concentration, or other value or parameter is given as either a range, preferred range, or a list of upper preferable values and lower preferable values, this is to be understood as specifically disclosing all ranges formed from any pair of any upper range limit or preferred value and any lower range limit or preferred value, regardless of whether ranges are separately disclosed. Where a range of numerical values is recited herein, unless otherwise stated, the range is intended to include the endpoints thereof, and all integers and fractions within the range. It is not intended that the scope of the invention be limited to the specific values recited when defining a range.

Other embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the present specification and practice of the present invention disclosed herein. It is intended that the present specification and examples be considered as exemplary only with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims and equivalents thereof. 

1. A light emitting device comprising: a pair of electrodes comprising an anode, and a cathode, wherein at least one of the anode and the cathode comprises indium tin oxide; a layer comprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots provided between the electrodes; a layer comprising an inorganic material provided between the emissive layer and the cathode, wherein the inorganic material comprises a zinc oxide; a layer comprising a hole transporting material provided between the emissive layer and the anode; and a layer comprising an organic hole-injection material provided between the anode and the layer comprising the hole transporting material, wherein the layer comprising the inorganic material comprises a stratified structure comprising two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities from each other, and wherein the two or more horizontal zones comprise: a first zone at a lower portion of the layer more remote from the emissive layer, the first zone comprising an electron injecting material, and a second zone at an upper portion of the layer nearer the emissive layer, the second zone comprising an electron transporting material, wherein the electron injecting material comprises a first n-doped inorganic material, and the electron transporting material comprises a second n-doped inorganic material having a lower concentration of n-type doping than the first n-doped inorganic material.
 2. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the hole transporting material comprises an organic material and is different from the organic hole-injection material.
 3. The light-emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the zinc oxide is crystalline or amorphous.
 4. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons further comprises a second metal oxide.
 5. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a mixture of the zinc oxide and a titanium dioxide.
 6. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the hole transporting material comprises an organic material comprising an organic chromophore.
 7. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the first n-doped inorganic material comprises zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, or a combination thereof.
 8. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the second n-doped inorganic material comprises zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, or a combination thereof.
 9. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the quantum dots are capable of emitting visible light.
 10. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the emissive layer comprises two or more different types of quantum dots, wherein each type is independently selected to emit light having a predetermined distinct color.
 11. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the zinc oxide is doped with a dopant species to enhance its electron transport characteristics.
 12. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the layers are formed in the following sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising zinc oxide, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, the layer comprising an organic hole injection material, and the anode, and wherein the organic hole injection material is p-type doped.
 13. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the light emitting device has a turn-on voltage that is less than or equal to 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.
 14. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the light emitting device has a maximum brightness of 12,000 cd/m² to 41,500 cd/m².
 15. A light emitting device comprising: a pair of electrodes comprising an anode, and a cathode, wherein at least one of the anode and the cathode comprises indium tin oxide; a layer comprising a light emissive material comprising quantum dots provided between the electrodes; a layer comprising an inorganic material provided between the emissive layer and the cathode, wherein the inorganic material comprises a zinc oxide; a layer comprising a hole transporting material provided between the emissive layer and the anode; and a layer comprising a hole-injection material provided between the anode and the layer comprising the hole transporting material, wherein the layer comprising the inorganic material comprises a stratified structure comprising two or more horizontal zones having different conductivities from each other, wherein the two or more horizontal zones comprise: a first zone at a lower portion of the layer more remote from the emissive layer, the first zone comprising an electron injecting material; and a second zone at an upper portion of the layer nearer the emissive layer, the second zone comprising an electron transporting material; wherein the electron injecting material comprises a first n-doped inorganic material, and the electron transporting material comprises a second n-doped inorganic material having a lower concentration of n-type doping than the first n-doped inorganic material, and wherein the light emitting device has a turn-on voltage that is less than or equal to 1240/λ, wherein λ represents the wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.
 16. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 15, wherein the first n-doped inorganic material comprises zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, or a combination thereof.
 17. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 15, wherein the second n-doped inorganic material comprises zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, or a combination thereof.
 18. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 15, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a mixture of a zinc oxide and a titanium oxide.
 19. A light emitting device comprising, in combination, a cathode, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising a zinc oxide, an emissive layer comprising quantum dots having a core/shell structure, a layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes comprising an organic compound, a layer comprising a hole injection material which is different from the organic compound, and an anode, and wherein the hole injection material comprises a p-type organic material capable of transporting holes, wherein the device has a turn-on voltage that is less than 1240/λ, wherein λ represents a wavelength (nm) of light emitted by the emissive layer.
 20. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 19, wherein the p-type organic hole injection material comprises PEDOT:PSS, LG-101, 4, 4′, 4″-tris(diphenylamino)triphenylamine (TDATA) that is doped with tetrafluoro-tetracyano-quinodimethane (F4-TCNQ), a p-doped phthalocyanine, N,N′-diphenyl-N,N′-bis(1-naphthyl)-1,1′biphenyl-4,4″diamine (alpha-NPD) doped with F4-TCNQ, or a combination thereof.
 21. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 19, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a first zone at a lower portion of the layer more remote from the emissive layer, the first zone comprising an electron injecting material, and a second zone at an upper portion of the layer nearer the emissive layer, the second zone comprising an electron transporting material, wherein the electron injecting material comprises a first n-doped inorganic material, and the electron transporting material comprises a second n-doped inorganic material having a lower concentration of n-type doping than the first n-doped inorganic material.
 22. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 19, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises an n-doped zinc oxide.
 23. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 19, wherein the layers are in the following sequential order: the cathode, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprising a zinc oxide, the emissive layer comprising quantum dots, the layer comprising a material capable of transporting holes, the layer comprising a hole injection material, and the anode.
 24. The light emitting device in accordance with claim 19, wherein the layer comprising a material capable of transporting and injecting electrons comprises a mixture of a zinc oxide and a titanium oxide. 